Causes And Effects Of Drought Stress Environmental Sciences Essay

Causes And Effects Of Drought Stress Environmental Sciences Essay Drought can be defined as the absence of rainfall and water or irrigation for a period of time sufficient to deplete soil moisture and injure plants (Plantlifeonline.net, 2007). In short, drought is a period of time without rainfall. The drought is one of the most serious global issues for agriculture field and need to harsh precaution need to be taken immediately. Four-tenths of the worlds agricultural land lies in arid or semi-arid regions especially in Africa. Meanwhile, drought stress is defined as effects of some period of plants that involve plant water relationships. According to Farooq et al. (2008) drought stress reduces and decreases the size of plants leaf, extension of stem and proliferation of roots that disturbs plant water relations and reduces water-use efficiency. While ForestryNepal(n.d.) defined that drought stress occurs when the available water in the soil is reduced and  atmospheric conditions cause continuous loss of water by transpiration or  evaporation. Drought stress tolerance can be found in almost all plants but its extent varies  from species to species and even within species. It is characterized by  reduction of water content, diminished leaf water potential and turgor loss, closure,  nutrient metabolism and growth promoters. Plants display a variety of physiological and biochemical responses at cellular and whole organism levels towards prevailing drought stress, thus making it a complex phenomenon. Based on Bishop(n.d) report, many variables play a part in reaching drought conditions, these include lack of natural rainfall, types of soil, air temperature, humidity, conditions of wind, exposure of sun, and also plant type or root depth that increase pant water loss. Drought stress can affect the growth of plants in various ways. One of the effects is the priming on seed performance of several plants due to lack of natural rainfall. For example of plant that can be affected from this problem is Canola plant (Brassica napus L.). Based on the report of Mohammadi and Amiri(2010) , Canola plant is one of the most important oil seed crops which its production has been notably extended during recent years in Iran and due to lack of rainfall at planting time and the seeds are common planted in seedbeds having unfavorable moisture. The drought stress is responsible for both inhibition and delayed seed germination and seedling establishment of Canola. Consequently, this stress adversely affects growth and development of crop and also results into low Canola yield. There is a decrease in water uptake both during imbibition and seedling establishment under this stress condition. Tutorvista(n.d.) stated that imbibitions process is the phenomenon of adsorption of water by the solid particles of a substance without forming a solution. Furthermore, inhibition of radicle also occurs due to the effect of stress condition. The inhibition emergence is mainly because of a decrease in water potential gradient between the external environment and the seeds. In addition, the seed priming has been successfully proved and demonstrated to improve germination and emergence in seeds of many crops and plants, especially under stress conditions. The seed priming is a technique that starts the germination process in the lab or plant. Moreover, the basic chemical reactions or framework for the seed to germinate and for the process to occur efficiently in the lab or plant, high moisture and ideal temperature condition are needed (Hariss, n.d.). Secondly is that the drought stress can affects the photosynthetic rate and leaf gas exchange of plants. Siddique et al. (1998) reported that, drought stress effects on photosynthetic rate and leaf gas exchange characteristics. The experiment had been done to four wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars which were evaluated under semi-controlled conditions. According to Siddiques observation, four cultivars which were Kanchan, Sonalika, Kalyansona, and C306, grown in pots and were subjected to four levels of water stress. However, cultivars that showed the highest photosynthesis rates both at vegetative and at anthesis among others is the Kalyansona. They had concluded that the exposure of plants to drought stress led to noticeable decrease in photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance and mesophyll conductance and a concomitant increase in intercellular CO2 concentration. The plants that were subjected to drought at the early vegetative stage displayed similar physiological characters subsequently under well-watered conditions as compared with control. Therefore, the photosynthesis rates decreased with decrease in stomatal conductance, but a weak relationship between them implied that non-stomatal limitations to photosynthesis might have been in operation. The involvement of CO2 concentration and assimilation was described in Farooq et al. (2008) report. The CO2  assimilation by the leaves is reduced mainly by the closure of the stomata, damaged the membrane and disturbed activity of various enzymes in the plants, especially those of O2  fixation and adenosine triphosphate(ATP) synthesis. Moreover, the enhancement of metabolite flux through the photorespiratory pathway had increased the oxidative load on the tissues as both processes generate reactive oxygen species. The damage and injury caused by reactive oxygen species to biological macromolecules under drought stress is among the major deterrents to growth.

Obadiah The Prophet :: essays research papers

Prophet - One who utters divinely inspired revelations That is how the word prophet is defined in Webster’s dictionary, but a prophet is much more. A prophet is someone who is chosen by God to convey his message to the people; a middleman between God and his people. A prophet is someone who God selects as the embodiment of himself. Someone that people will listen to. Someone with a presence. Now the prophets did not all lead perfect lives, but they all had a bond with the Lord that could not be matched. The Prophets were holy people but they were in no way God-like. They were humble people that gladly served their God. This summary of a prophet is what most people believe the prophet Obadiah was like. Obadiah, the shortest book in the Old Testament consisting of only one chapter, is the pronouncement of doom against an ancient and long-forgotten nation, the land of Edom. It was written in 587 B.C.E, after the destruction of Jerusalem. But there is more to this book than that. The Scriptures have that ability of appearing to be one thing on the surface, but on a deeper level, yielding rich and mighty treasures. This is definitely true for the short, but meaningful book of Obadiah. We know very little about Obadiah except that he was one of the minor prophets. There is a reference to a prophet Obadiah in the days of Elijah and Elisha and there is some thought that perhaps he is the same man. The name Obadiah was a very common name among the Hebrews though, and it is very likely this is not the same prophet, for in this book Obadiah mentions the day when Jerusalem was destroyed, captured by the alien armies, and that occurs long after the time of Elijah and Elisha. So most Bible commentators believe the author of this book was a contemporary of the prophet Jeremiah, the last of the prophets before Israel went into captivity. The name Obadiah means "the servant of Jehovah;" He fulfills the position of a servant. He comes and does his work and fades into the background; he delivers his message and he is gone. That is about all we know about the man behind this book. The book of Obadiah tells the story of two nations, the nation of Israel and the nation of Edom, the country to the south of Israel that is now usually referred to as the Negeb.

Philosophy Afrterlife Reformation Essay

The ancient philosophers of Greek and Rome generally believed the world to be eternal, meaning, that the world had no beginning, and thus, it can never have an end, too. The people who had pondered about the origins of life here on earth, and about life after this present existence ends, have been segregated into many sects and categories. For the Stoics [1] our universe undergoes the shifting courses of expansion and contraction in perpetuity – from fire the universe expands into cooler and denser forms, contracts again in order to become fire, and so on in an eternal fashion. To the followers of Aristotle, according the author Leopold Sulmner in his book What Students of Philosophy Should Know,   â€Å"this world of ours has always existed and always will, and God did not create this world.†(90) Yet, even the followers of Aristotle, were divided as far as their opinions went. Jostein Gaarder provides as much in Sophie’s World by indicating that to a select number of these Aristotelians the world â€Å"†¦is like a big clockwork machine in which after a very long interval all the parts come back to the same positions, and the same sequence of events then happens again, over and over eternally; human beings and their actions are part of the clockwork, so everything in human history has already happened an infinite number of times already, and will happen again an infinite number of times in the future.† (67) Still in Gaarder’s Sophies World, we read that the early Christians and their faith in the sacred Scriptures believed that their, â€Å"God created the world a relatively short time ago, exercises continual providence in human history, and will eventually end it, perhaps in the not too distant future, and conduct a grand accounting. Life after death will go on for ever, but life on earth takes place within a fixed and relatively short timeframe, with a beginning, middle, and an end.† (72) There is a Christian saint in the person of St. Augustine who, â€Å"†¦scorned the Stoic concept of the happy life as inadequate, and proclaimed that in the next life true happiness will be found.† (45) But, according to St. Augustine, â€Å"they did not say much about what it would be like.† (46) St. Augustine went on further to write that, â€Å"†¦it is as if they were content to leave it to God – we can be sure that whatever is required to make human beings happy will be provided.†(57) The Stoics, in the opinion of the said Christian saint, â€Å"were not much interested in theorizing about happiness in this life, because not everyone can achieve it, it is not important to achieve, it is not of much significance in comparison with the happiness of the next life.† (93)   In Robert Longman’s, Medieval Aristotelians, the author writes that the medieval Aristotelians, â€Å"theorized about the happiness of the next life, adapting Aristotle’s ideas for the purpose: the happiness of heaven consists of intuitive knowledge of God himself.† (385) Lastly, in St. Augustine’s own City of God, St. Augustine postulates that â€Å"the elect are those who are predestined to happiness in the next life.† (990)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The philosopher, Rene Descartes immortalized the philosophical tenet of, â€Å"I think, therefore, I am.† In Dan Kaufman’s Divine Simplicity and the Eternal Truths in Descartes, we come to have a greater understanding about the view of Descartes regarding the afterlife of man. For Descartes, there is a God who is the composer and man who is the composed and composite. [2] Descartes philosophizes that, â€Å"†¦ man’s life, death, and life after death is dependent on the will, intellect and understanding of God.† (14) Hence, if this is so, for Rene Descartes, if God is the cause of man, then man depends on God also, even in the matter of man’s death. Rene Descartes had studied the nature of man and he had stressed the reality behind man’s divisibility. We can say that if, for Descartes, man is: mind and body, thought and extension, and a corporeal being who is believed to be someone who knows that he exists if he is inclined to the process of thinking; then, it can be derived that man’s death comes when man ceases to think. The ‘I’ cannot think, the ‘I’ does not think, the ‘I’[ as already mentioned ] ceases to think, indeed, the ‘I’ can no longer think—most importantly- and the ‘I’ can no longer declare, â€Å" Therefore, I am†. And so, from this cessation of thought, the status quo of man’s existence becomes of this, â€Å"†¦he does not think, therefore, he is not.† (99) In fact, philosophically, the ‘he’ is no longer, an ‘I’. Life after death, we can gain from reading the works of Descartes, would be, according to this philosopher, a state of being that is entirely dependent on God’s will. Man no longer has a say in it, for he is no longer capable of thinking. John Hobbes’s Leviathan bears a duality of natured characteristics which stamp it with the mark of genius. Leopold Sulmner in his book What Students of Philosophy Should Know discusses the Leviathan, at length, by describing it in this way, â€Å"In the first place, it is a work of great imaginative power, which shows how the whole fabric of human life and society is built up out of simple elements. And, in the second place, it is distinguished by a remarkable logical consecutiveness, so that there are very few places in which any lack of coherence can be detected in the thought.† (1001) Sulmner writes how it, â€Å"is true that the social order, as Hobbes presents it, produces an impression of artificiality; but this is hardly an objection, for it was his deliberate aim to show the artifice by which it had been constructed and the danger which lay in any interference with the mechanism.† (1024) The author goes on further to include that, â€Å"It is true, also, that the state of nature and the social contract are fictions passed off as facts; but, even to this objection, an answer might be made from within the bounds of his [Hobbes’s] theory. It is in his premises, not in his reasoning, that the error lies. If human nature were as selfish and anarchical as he represents it, then morality and the political order could arise and flourish only by its restraint, and the alternative would be, as he describes it, between complete insecurity and absolute power. But, if his view of man be mistaken, then the whole fabric of his thought crumbles. When we recognize that the individual is neither real nor intelligible apart from his social origin and traditions, and that the social factor influences his thought and motives, the opposition between self and others becomes less fundamental, the abrupt alternatives of Hobbes’s thoughts lose their validity and it is possible to regard morality and the state as expressing the ideal and sphere of human activity, and not as simply the chains by which man’s unruly passions are kept in check.† (1037) For Hobbes, according to Sulmner, â€Å"for as long as the state of nature endures, life is insecure and wretched. Man cannot improve this state, but he can get out of it; therefore, the fundamental law of nature is to seek peace and follow it; and, from this, emerges the second law, that, for the sake of peace, a man should be willing to lay down his right to all things, when other men are, also, willing to do so. From these two are derived all the laws of nature of the moralists. The laws of nature are immutable and eternal.† (1048). And so, for Hobbes, life after death, would be the experience of absolute escape from his present state of life here on earth. Jostein Gaarder provides a chapter in Sophie’s World on how, â€Å"John Locke opened a new way for English philosophy.† (261) Locke had patterned his philosophies from those of Francis Bacon, Hobbes, and the other forefathers of modern philosophy. Sophie’s World presents how, â€Å"Bacon had done more: he had found dangers and defects in the natural working of men’s minds, and had devised means to correct them. But Locke went a step further, and undertook a systematic investigation of the human understanding with a view to determining something else—namely, the truth and certainty of knowledge, and the grounds of belief, on all matters about which men are in the habit of making assertions.† (262) In his manner, Locke introduced a new method of philosophical enquiry, which is, â€Å"now known as a theory of knowledge, or epistemology; and, in this respect, he was the precursor of Kant and anticipated what Kant called the critical method.† (279)    Sophie’s World also provides us with this knowledge of how, â€Å"we have Locke’s own account of the origin of the problem in his mind. He struck out a new way because he found the old paths blocked. Five or six friends were conversing in his room, probably in London and in the winter of 1670–1, â€Å"on a subject very remote from this†; the subject, as we learn from another member of the party, was the â€Å"principles of morality and revealed religion†; but difficulties arose on every side, and no progress was made. Then, he goes on to say, it came into my thoughts that we took a wrong course, and that before we set ourselves upon inquires of that nature, it was necessary to examine our own abilities, and see what objects our understandings were, or were not, fitted to deal with.† (262) Again, Leopold Sulmner in his book What Students of Philosophy Should Know writes about Locke, â€Å"At the request of his friends, Locke agreed to set down his thoughts on this question against their next meeting; and he expected that a single sheet of paper would suffice for the purpose. So little did he realize the magnitude of the issues which he raised and which were to occupy his leisure for nearly twenty years.† (2765)    Sulmner informs by highlighting, â€Å"Locke’s interest centers in the traditional problems—the nature of self, the world and God, and the grounds of our knowledge of them. We reach these questions only in the fourth and last book of the Essay. But to them the enquiry of the first three books is preliminary, though it has, and Locke saw that it had, an importance of its own. His introductory sentences make this plain: Since it is the understanding that sets man above the rest of sensible beings, and gives him all the advantage and dominion which he has over them; it is certainly a subject, even for its nobleness, worth our labor to inquire into. The understanding, like the eye, while it makes us see and perceive all other things, takes no notice of itself; and it requires art and pains to set it at a distance and make it its own object. But whatever be the difficulties that lie in the way of this inquiry; whatever it be that keeps us so much in the dark to ourselves; sure I am that all the light we can let in upon our minds, all the acquaintance we can make with our own understandings, will not only be very pleasant, but bring us great advantage, in directing our thoughts in the search of other things. â€Å"(2766)   What Students of Philosophy Should Know concludes for us that, â€Å"Locke will not ‘meddle with the physical consideration of the mind’; he has no theory about its essence or its relation to the body; at the same time, he has no doubt that, if due pains be taken, the understanding can be studied like anything else: we can observe its objects and the ways in which it operates upon them. All the objects of the understanding are described as ideas, and ideas are spoken of as being in the mind. Locke’s first problem, therefore, is to trace the origin and history of ideas, and the ways in which the understanding operates upon them, in order that he may be able to see what knowledge is and how far it reaches.† (2800) In Sulmner’s book, we can read that, â€Å"This wide use of the term â€Å"idea† is inherited from Descartes. The term in modern psychology which corresponds with it most nearly is â€Å"presentation.† But presentation is, strictly, only one variety of Locke’s idea, which includes, also, representation and image, percept, and concept or notion. His usage of the term thus differs so widely from the old Platonic meaning that the danger of confusion between them is not great. It suited the author’s purpose, also, from being a familiar word in ordinary discourse as well as in the language of philosophers. Herein, however, lay a danger from which he did not escape. In common usage â€Å"idea† carries with it a suggestion of contrast with reality; and the opposition which the â€Å"new way of ideas† excited was due to the doubt which it seemed to cast on the claim of knowledge to be ‘a knowledge of real things’.(2817) Perhaps, for Locke, life after death, is something that can be located in man’s mind. This is what we can gather from studies of philosophers, throughout history, about life after death: 1.) in the next life true happiness will be found, 2.) the happiness of heaven consists of intuitive knowledge of God himself, 3.) a state of being that is entirely dependent on God’s will, 4.) life after death, would be the experience of absolute escape from his present state of life here on earth, and finally, 5.)something that can be located in man’s mind. And as for the matter, of which would be true amongst these theories? Well, we shall see which, but in the next life. WORKS CITED De Torre, Joseph M. The Humanism of Modern Philosophy,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3d ed. Madrid: Solaris Press, 1999. Gaarder, Jostein. Sophie’s World. London: Phoenix Books, 1996;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reprint, Phoenix Books,1998. Kaufmann, Dan. Divine Simplicity and the Eternal Truths   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Descartes.   British Journal for the History of Philosophy: UK, Vol. ii   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Issue 4, 2003. Longman, Robert.   Medieval Aristotelians.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Translated by Thomas Charles. New York:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Random House Publishing, 1992. Sulmner, Leopold.What Students of Philosophy Should Know. Singapore: Allyn and Bacon, 1996. [1] De Torre, Joseph M. The Humanism of Modern Philosophy,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3d ed. Madrid: Solaris Press, 1999. [2] Man in being composed[composite], has external parts and a soul. He is divisible, according to his parts. And he is created by God, the composer.

The Black Plague Essays - Plague, Second Plague Pandemic, Epidemics

The Black Plague Essays - Plague, Second Plague Pandemic, Epidemics The Black Plague : From the early fourteenth to late seventeenth century, Europe was decimated by one of the most horrifying pestilence's human kind has ever known(Coulton 493). The killer's name was later to be recognized by the detrimental consummation it had seized upon a person's life. It was known as the Black Plague. This terrible epidemic exhausted small towns across Europe, including the British Isles, brutally killing an incredulous amount of people. The disease had wiped out entire villages leaving dead bodies to decompose within the gutters of streets and corners of allies(Ziegler 17). Though people were introduced to the severity of the plague, they were still mystified as to the causes of the deadly disease. Because of this fact, a parade of unconfirmed myths and questionable facts had arisen concerning the sources of the abhorrent epidemic for over five centuries(Coulton 493). In the nineteenth century, the causes of the terrifying pestilence was discovered and the Black Death was no longer a conundrum. One myth, of the origin of the deadly plague was said to be a result of medieval gas warfare. Yet another myth, stated that the murderous disease was an aftereffect of a great earthquake that occurred in Europe. Scientists even believed that the epidemic was caused by Paolilli 2 heaps of unburned corpses left in churchyards(Beatty and Marks 80). The last proven cause of the pestilence was found to be a disease of rats and other related animals(Rowling 186). One of the myths as to the cause of the Black Plague is quite an unusual story that was formed by peoples unexplainable imaginations. One of the probable derivations of the epidemic supposedly was born in a terrible war that had occurred between the deadly waters of the Indian Ocean and the sun(Ziegler 14). The immense waters of the treacherous blue ocean were lifted up like a solid wall of concrete to fight the flaming sun. As the wall stood in the midst of the air still touching the base of the water, dangerous vapors began to disperse from the water. The high winds spurred the poisonous fumes spurred out in every direction(Ziegler 14). The plague reached the nearby lands and the epidemic began to take it's murderous route. This myth arose from small villages as people spread rumor after rumor from the stories they had once heard as to the unexplainable causes of the plague. Though this tale is entirely nonsensical, people were still mystified because of the secrecy as to the causes that they were eager to believe any explanation that there was to offer concerning the deadly plague. Paolilli 3 Another myth, as to the beginning of the dreadful virus, is it arose from poisonous fumes as a direct result of earthquakes that occurred during the Medieval times. It was stated that a horrendous amount of pressure had been building up underneath the Earth for several years(Ziegler 21). Poisonous gases then began to stir amongst each other. Then terrible earthquakes had rocked Europe and the poisonous fumes, that were once enclosed by the several layers of earth, were now being released through cracks into the atmosphere. This viperous cloud streamed across Europe and killed each individual who it met(Ziegler 21). Next, it was stated that the epidemic was caused by innumerable layers of unburned corpses that were left in churchyards(Beatty and Marks 81). A man named Galen had stated, The infection arose from 'Inspiration of air infected with a putrid exhalation. The beginning of the putrescence may be a multitude of unburned corpses, as may happen in war; or the exhalations of marshes and ponds in the summer?'(Ziegler 22). A Dr. Crighton also supported the findings that the plague had originated within the piles of dead corpses that were left unburied. He stated that specific incidents that would explain the tremendous amount of people left dead are directly related to the tragedies that had struck Paolilli 4 China(Ziegler 24). He also concluded that, the probable reason why there was such a high death rate among church affiliated persons is the dead were buried in churchyards where the priests and monks lived close to. The church related people had obtained cadaveric poisoning from the enormous amount of dead bodies and diseases

The Worlds Most Endangered Frogs

The Worlds Most Endangered Frogs Frogs are the most numerous of the worlds amphibians, but they are rapidly declining, and many species are actually facing the imminent threat of extinction. Pollution, global warming, and habitat destruction from human development have already taken a serious toll, reports Animal Planet. Frogs, in particular, have suffered, having lost an estimated 170 species in the last 10 years alone. Frogs are also affected by a singular danger that is threatening their populations worldwide: the chytrid fungus, which coats frogs skin and seals out vital moisture and kills frogs by dehydration. Adenomus dasi Agalychnis moreletii Albericus siegfriedi Alexteroon jynx Allobates juanii Alsodes montanus Alsodes tumultuosus Alsodes vanzolinii Ameerega ingeri Ameerega planipaleae Amietophrynus taiensis Andinophryne colomai Anodonthyla vallani Aromobates leopardalis Aromobates meridensis Aromobates nocturnus Arthroleptella rugosa Arthroleptis kidogo Arthroleptis troglodytes Astylosternus nganhanus Atelopus andinus Atelopus angelito Atelopus arsyecue Atelopus arthuri Atelopus balios Atelopus bomolochos Atelopus boulengeri Atelopus carauta Atelopus carbonerensis Atelopus carrikeri Atelopus chiriquiensis Atelopus chocoensis Atelopus chrysocorallus Atelopus coynei Atelopus cruciger Atelopus ebenoides Atelopus elegans Atelopus epikeisthos Atelopus erythropus Atelopus eusebianus Atelopus eusebiodiazi Atelopus exiguus Atelopus famelicus Atelopus farci Atelopus galactogaster Atelopus glyphus Atelopus guanujo Atelopus guitarraensis Atelopus halihelos Atelopus laetissimus Atelopus lozanoi Atelopus lynchi Atelopus mandingues Atelopus mindoensis Atelopus minutulus Atelopus monohernandezii Atelopus mucubajiensis Atelopus muisca Atelopus nahumae Atelopus nanay Atelopus nepiozomus Atelopus nicefori Atelopus onorei Atelopus oxyrhynchus Atelopus pachydermus Atelopus patazensis Atelopus pedimarmoratus Atelopus peruensis Atelopus petersi Atelopus petriruizi Atelopus pictiventris Atelopus pinangoi Atelopus planispina Atelopus pulcher Atelopus pyrodactylus Atelopus quimbaya Atelopus reticulatus Atelopus seminiferus Atelopus senex Atelopus sernai Atelopus simulatus Atelopus sonsonensis Atelopus sorianoi Atelopus subornatus Atelopus tamaense Atelopus varius Atelopus walkeri Atelopus zeteki Atopophrynus syntomopus Bokermannohyla izecksohni Boophis williamsi Bromeliohyla dendroscarta Callulina hanseni Callulina kanga Callulina laphami Callulina shengena Callulina stanleyi Cardioglossa alsco Cardioglossa trifasciata Centrolene ballux Centrolene gemmatum Centrolene heloderma Charadrahyla altipotens Charadrahyla trux Churamiti maridadi Colostethus jacobuspetersi Conraua derooi Cophixalus concinnus Cophyla berara Craugastor anciano Craugastor andi Craugastor angelicus Craugastor catalinae Craugastor coffeus Craugastor cruzi Craugastor emcelae Craugastor emleni Craugastor epochthidius Craugastor fecundus Craugastor fleischmanni Craugastor glaucus Craugastor greggi Craugastor guerreroensis Craugastor lineatus Craugastor megalotympanum Craugastor merendonensis Craugastor milesi Craugastor olanchano Craugastor omoaensis Craugastor polymniae Craugastor pozo Craugastor ranoides Craugastor saltuarius Craugastor stadelmani Craugastor tabasarae Craugastor taurus Craugastor trachydermus Cryptobatrachus nicefori Cycloramphus faustoi Dendropsophus amicorum Discoglossus nigriventer Duellmanohyla salvavida Duellmanohyla soralia Duellmanohyla uranochroa Duttaphrynus sumatranus Ecnomiohyla echinata Ecnomiohyla rabborum Ecnomiohyla salvaje Ecnomiohyla valancifer Eleutherodactylus albipes Eleutherodactylus alticola Eleutherodactylus amadeus Eleutherodactylus apostates Eleutherodactylus bakeri Eleutherodactylus bartonsmithi Eleutherodactylus blairhedgesi Eleutherodactylus bresslerae Eleutherodactylus brevirostris Eleutherodactylus caribe Eleutherodactylus cavernicola Eleutherodactylus chlorophenax Eleutherodactylus corona Eleutherodactylus cubanus Eleutherodactylus darlingtoni Eleutherodactylus dixoni Eleutherodactylus dolomedes Eleutherodactylus eneidae Eleutherodactylus eunaster Eleutherodactylus fowleri Eleutherodactylus furcyensis Eleutherodactylus fuscus Eleutherodactylus glandulifer Eleutherodactylus glanduliferoides Eleutherodactylus grandis Eleutherodactylus griphus Eleutherodactylus iberia Eleutherodactylus jasperi Eleutherodactylus jaumei Eleutherodactylus juanariveroi Eleutherodactylus jugans Eleutherodactylus junori Eleutherodactylus karlschmidti Eleutherodactylus lamprotes Eleutherodactylus leoncei Eleutherodactylus locustus Eleutherodactylus lucioi Eleutherodactylus mariposa Eleutherodactylus nortoni Eleutherodactylus orcutti Eleutherodactylus orientalis Eleutherodactylus oxyrhyncus Eleutherodactylus parabates Eleutherodactylus parapelates Eleutherodactylus paulsoni Eleutherodactylus pezopetrus Eleutherodactylus poolei Eleutherodactylus rhodesi Eleutherodactylus richmondi Eleutherodactylus rivularis Eleutherodactylus rufescens Eleutherodactylus rufifemoralis Eleutherodactylus schmidti Eleutherodactylus sciagraphus Eleutherodactylus semipalmatus Eleutherodactylus sisyphodemus Eleutherodactylus symingtoni Eleutherodactylus tetajulia Eleutherodactylus thorectes Eleutherodactylus tonyi Eleutherodactylus turquinensis Eleutherodactylus ventrilineatus Eleutherodactylus warreni Eupsophus insularis Exerodonta perkinsi Fejervarya murthii Gastrotheca lauzuricae Gastrotheca zeugocystis Geocrinia alba Glandirana minima Heleophryne rosei Holoaden bradei Hyalinobatrachium crybetes Hyla bocourti Hyla heinzsteinitzi Hylomantis lemur Hyloscirtus chlorosteus Hyloscirtus colymba Hyloscirtus ptychodactylus Hyloxalus anthracinus Hyloxalus delatorreae Hyloxalus edwardsi Hyloxalus ruizi Hyloxalus vertebralis Hyperolius pickersgilli Hyperolius watsonae Hypodactylus lucida Hypsiboas cymbalum Incilius cristatus Incilius fastidiosus Incilius peripatetes Indirana gundia Indirana phrynoderma Ingerana charlesdarwini Insuetophrynus acarpicus Isthmohyla angustilineata Isthmohyla calypsa Isthmohyla debilis Isthmohyla graceae Isthmohyla insolita Isthmohyla rivularis Isthmohyla tica Leiopelma archeyi Leptobrachella palmata Leptodactylodon erythrogaster Leptodactylus fallax Leptodactylus magistris Leptodactylus silvanimbus Leptophryne cruentata Lithobates chichicuahutla Lithobates omiltemanus Lithobates pueblae Lithobates sevosus Lithobates subaquavocalis Lithobates tlaloci Lithobates vibicarius Litoria booroolongensis Litoria castanea Litoria lorica Litoria myola Litoria nyakalensis Litoria piperata Litoria spenceri Mannophryne caquetio Mannophryne cordilleriana Mannophryne lamarcai Mannophryne neblina Mannophryne olmonae Mantella aurantiaca Mantella cowanii Mantella milotympanum Mantidactylus pauliani Megastomatohyla mixe Megastomatohyla pellita Melanophryniscus langonei Micrixalus kottigeharensis Microbatrachella capensis Microhyla karunaratnei Minyobates steyermarki Nannophrys marmorata Nectophrynoides paulae Nectophrynoides poyntoni Nectophrynoides wendyae Niceforonia adenobrachia Nimbaphrynoides liberiensis Nimbaphrynoides occidentalis Nyctibatrachus dattatreyaensis Nymphargus anomalus Nymphargus laurae Odontophrynus moratoi Odorrana wuchuanensis Oophaga lehmanni Oreobates pereger Oreobates zongoensis Oreolalax liangbeiensis Parhoplophryne usambarica Pelophryne linanitensis Pelophryne murudensis Pelophylax cerigensis Peltophryne florentinoi Peltophryne fluviatica Peltophryne lemur Petropedetes dutoiti Philautus jacobsoni Philautus sanctisilvaticus Philoria frosti Phrynobatrachus chukuchuku Phrynobatrachus intermedius Phrynopus dagmarae Phrynopus heimorum Phrynopus juninensis Phrynopus kauneorum Phrynopus tautzorum Phyllomedusa ayeaye Phytotriades auratus Platymantis insulatus Plectrohyla acanthodes Plectrohyla avia Plectrohyla calthula Plectrohyla calvicollina Plectrohyla celata Plectrohyla cembra Plectrohyla chryses Plectrohyla chrysopleura Plectrohyla crassa Plectrohyla cyanomma Plectrohyla dasypus Plectrohyla ephemera Plectrohyla exquisita Plectrohyla guatemalensis Plectrohyla hartwegi Plectrohyla hazelae Plectrohyla ixil Plectrohyla pachyderma Plectrohyla pokomchi Plectrohyla psarosema Plectrohyla pycnochila Plectrohyla quecchi Plectrohyla sabrina Plectrohyla siopela Plectrohyla tecunumani Plectrohyla teuchestes Plectrohyla thorectes Polypedates fastigo Pristimantis albericoi Pristimantis bernali Pristimantis hamiotae Pristimantis lichenoides Pristimantis phragmipleuron Pristimantis simonsii Pristimantis torrenticola Pristimantis tribulosus Pristimantis veletis Prostherapis dunni Pseudophilautus amboli Pseudophilautus limbus Pseudophilautus lunatus Pseudophilautus macropus Pseudophilautus nemus Pseudophilautus papillosus Pseudophilautus procax Pseudophilautus simba Pseudophryne corroboree Psychrophrynella guillei Psychrophrynella illimani Psychrophrynella kallawaya Psychrophrynella saltator Ptychohyla dendrophasma Ptychohyla hypomykter Ptychohyla macrotympanum Ptychohyla sanctaecrucis Rana chevronta Rana holtzi Ranitomeya abdita Ranitomeya dorisswansonae Raorchestes chalazodes Raorchestes chlorosomma Raorchestes griet Raorchestes kaikatti Raorchestes marki Raorchestes munnarensis Raorchestes ponmudi Raorchestes resplendens Raorchestes shillongensis Raorchestes sushili Rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus Rhinella amabilis Rhinella chavin Rhinella rostrata Rhinoderma rufum Scinax alcatraz Scinax faivovichi Scinax peixotoi Scutiger maculatus Somuncuria somuncurensis Strabomantis helonotus Stumpffia helenae Taudactylus acutirostris Taudactylus eungellensis Taudactylus pleione Taudactylus rheophilus Telmatobius atacamensis Telmatobius cirrhacelis Telmatobius culeus Telmatobius espadai Telmatobius gigas Telmatobius niger Telmatobius pefauri Telmatobius punctatus Telmatobius vellardi Telmatobius zapahuirensis Telmatobufo bullocki Vandijkophrynus amatolicus Werneria iboundji Wolterstorffina chirioi Xanthophryne tigerina Xenopus itombwensis Xenopus longipes

Police Interrogation and Due Process Research Paper

Police Interrogation and Due Process - Research Paper Example The above principles which are contained in the 5th amendment are very important to an individual accused of a crime. Although the amendment is viewed to contain various provisions, four elements widely protects an individual accused of a crime are right of protection against double jeopardy, right to due process, a right to what is known as grand jury and finally, right against self incrimination (Tomkovicz, 2002). Within courts in the United States, whenever questions arise in criminal trials whether a confession is incompetent because it is not viewed to be voluntary; this issue is mainly controlled by the 5th amendment commanding that specific individual shall at any given time be compelled in a criminal case to be a witness against himself. Self incrimination indicates that no person accused of a particular crime may be compelled to be a witness against her/himself. Supreme Court ruled that this specific action is only available not only police interrogation but also the trial. Further, this same rule may only apply to custodial interrogation where police interrogates an individual while in custody. Grand jury is defined as a group of individuals who decide whether there is enough evidence to charge a particular suspect. However, the US Supreme Court has not ruled on this requirement to apply to the states. Double jeopardy implies that individuals may not be punished and tried twice for the same crime. This area is complex such that even Supreme Court struggle with it. Finally, based on the due process, the 5th amendment indicates that no one should at any time be deprived property, life and liberty without due process of the law. The two types of due process are substantive and procedural. Procedural type focuses on fundamental fairness whereas substantive widely extend beyond the context of criminal prosecutions (Sonneborn, 2004). 4th Amendment Clearly, it is the legal responsibility for any government to provide each and every defiant in any criminal ac tion with legal representation which must be viewed to be effective. This is explained by the 6th amendment to the U.S that states â€Å"In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦to have the assistance of counsel for his defense†. This clause gives all defendants the right to communicate with an attorney from the specific moment the defendant was taken into police custody. Decision by U.S Supreme Court to have constructed this clause was to ensure that any defiant enjoyed the constitutional right especially during critical stages in a criminal proceeding. These critical stages are namely; preliminary hearings, custodial interrogation, trial, post indictment, first appeal conviction and sentencing (Chemerinsky, 2002). This same clause was mainly to react against English practice where assistant from an attorney was denied even in very serious criminal cases. Here, defendants required

Global warming by human caused Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Global warming by human caused - Essay Example In addition to this, several non-human activities, such as variation in the orbit of earth around the sun, rapid changes in atmospheric composition, volcanic eruptions and solar luminosity are also responsible for the global climate change. Global climate change has become one of the most challenging and critical issue that is affecting ecological and environmental balance of the globe. It is difficult to justify the major responsible reasons behind this global warming. Several scientists have argued that human beings’ unethical activities are responsible for this issue. On the other hand, some of the scientists around the globe are trying to illustrate that volatile change in natural and environmental structure is causing rapid global climate change. The essay will provide an argument on the topic i.e. â€Å"Can the humans be held responsible for global warming?† Major Reasons behind Global Warming There are several reasons behind the climate and temperature change in the earth’s surface. The part of the essay will provide an argument about the real causes behind the global warming and rapid global; climate change. Non-Human Reasons The temperature of the earth depends upon the balance between the planet’s system and energy entering. When the energy from sun is absorbed, earth warms. On the other hand, when the energy of the sun is reflected back then the earth generally avoids warming. There are several non-human reasons that are affecting the global temperature. Green house effects, variation in the energy of sun and change in earth’s surface as well as atmospheric reflectivity are the factors responsible for global warming. Several scientists pieced a picture of the climate, dating back thousands of years through the analysis of various indirect measures like tree rings, glacier lengths, ice cores, and ocean sediments, changes in the orbit of earth and pollen remains. The valuable historical record shows that the global cl imate system varies naturally (Lawson 22). The output of the sun shows narrow variations over the course of a particular 11 year time cycle. These cyclic changes effectively correlate with the frequency and number of sun spot. It is known as solar cycle. This solar spot is growing slowly and gradually. However, the rapid increase of solar spot is affecting global climate. The climate is getting hotter and hotter due to this reason. On the other hand, position of the earth with respect to the sun slightly varied over a longer period of time due to the change in orbit of earth. However, this frequent change is termed as Milankovitch cycle (Shrivastava 109). According to the view of several scientists, these changes are major culprits for the global climate change since the Ice Age of earth. These changes have limited impact on the global temperature and climate change for a shorter time cycle. These changes have occurred slowly and gradually. This Milankovitch change has impacted the global climate and earth surface’s temperature. It has resulted in long-term climate and temperature fluctuations. Water vapor is considered as the most abundant green house gas in the atmosphere of earth although the changes in the water vapor’s concentration are generally the result of temperature changes. Consequently, this water vapor can significantly act as the part of feedback loop (Arnold 272). In the feedback loop, the increase in temperature typically triggers an effective increase in the evaporation of the water. The